ποΈ CLASS 8 SOCIAL SCIENCE Β· HISTORY Β· CHAPTER 2 Β· PART 2 of 2
Reshaping India’s Political Map
The Mughals, resistance movements (Rajputs, Ahoms, Sikhs), administration systems, and the economic life of people during this transformative period.
π Tapestry of the Past
π Babur to Aurangzeb
βοΈ Multiple resistances covered
Quick Navigation
The Mughals
Resistance to Mughals
Administration
People’s Lives
Final Quiz
Summary
π
The Mughals
BB
1526 CE
Babur β Founder of the Mughal Empire
A Turkic-Mongol ruler and military strategist, Babur had been thrown out of Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan) and turned his sights to India. A descendant of Timur, he defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526 (the ‘First Battle of Panipat’), relying heavily on gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns β recently introduced in Indian warfare. This ended the Delhi Sultanate and established the Mughal Empire.
Babur left an autobiography β Baburnama β which shows him as culturally curious and appreciative of architecture and poetry, yet also a brutal conqueror who slaughtered entire populations and erected ‘towers of skulls’. He was nostalgic about Central Asia but remained in India for its wealth.
HU
After 1530
Humayun & the Interlude of Sher Shah Suri
After Babur’s death, his son Humayun struggled to hold the empire together. Sher Shah Suri, a powerful Afghan leader, seized control and established the Sur Empire, introducing many lasting reforms. However, the Sur Empire was short-lived β Humayun soon reconquered the lost ground.
Himu (Hemu), a skilled military commander under the last Suri rulers, briefly captured Delhi and ruled as Hemchandra Vikramaditya. At the Second Battle of Panipat, he was captured by Babur’s grandson Akbar and beheaded, after which Akbar reclaimed Delhi.
AK
1556β1605 (almost 50 years)
Akbar β The Complex Emperor
Declared emperor at age 13, Akbar’s reign was a blend of brutality and tolerance. His early campaign at Chittorgarh (fort Chittor) resulted in the massacre of ~30,000 civilians and the enslavement of women and children; hundreds of Rajput women committed jauhar (see below). Yet as his empire grew, he used different strategies:
β Akbar’s Tolerant Policies
- Abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims
- Promoted sulh-i-kul β ‘peace with all’, tolerance of all faiths
- Marriage alliances with Rajput princesses
- Welcomed Rajput leaders into his court
- Appointed Hindu officials in high positions
- Established a ‘house of translation’ at Fatehpur Sikri β had Sanskrit texts (Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita, Panchatantra) translated into Persian
β οΈ Limitations of Akbar’s Tolerance
- Early reign was brutal β Chittor massacre
- Non-Muslims kept as a minority in higher administration (rarely exceeded one-third of total)
- Muslims of foreign origin generally favoured over Indian Muslims
- Final 15 years saw fresh military campaigns in Kashmir, Sindh, Deccan, Afghanistan
π What is Jauhar?
When invading Turkic or Mughal armies conquered a territory, they often took women as slaves or abused them. There are historical examples of Rajput women jumping into mass fires to avoid capture and enslavement. This jauhar was considered a heroic act of final resistance. When Akbar breached Chittorgarh, hundreds of Rajput women, led by their queens and noblewomen, committed jauhar.
SJ
After Akbar
Jahangir and Shah Jahan
Jahangir (Akbar’s son) shared his father’s love for art and architecture and tried to expand into the Deccan. Shah Jahan is best remembered as the builder of the Taj Mahal at Agra β one of the great architectural marvels of the world. This era also saw Humayun’s tomb in Delhi, Red Forts in Delhi and Agra, remarkable calligraphy, miniature paintings, and music flourish.
AZ
1658β1707 (49 years)
Aurangzeb β The Controversial Emperor
Aurangzeb defeated his brother Dara Shikoh in a succession war, executed him, imprisoned two other brothers, and locked his own father Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort. He crowned himself emperor in 1658 as ‘Alamgir’ (conqueror of the world). Key aspects of his reign:
- Under him the Mughal Empire reached its greatest geographical expansion, but constantly faced rebellions.
- Spent the last 25 years fighting wars in the Deccan, depleting the empire’s treasury β a key cause of Mughal decline after his death in 1707.
- Deeply religious; banned music and dance from his court; reimposed jizya on non-Muslims and a pilgrimage tax on Hindus (both abolished by Akbar).
- Issued farmans (edicts) to demolish temples: at Banaras (Varanasi), Mathura, Somnath, and many others, as well as Jain temples and Sikh gurudwaras.
- Persecuted Muslims of other sects (Sufis) and Zoroastrians as well.
π‘ Think About It
Delhi sultans’ average reign lasted ~9 years. Mughal emperors up to Aurangzeb averaged ~27 years. What do these numbers suggest about the stability of Mughal rule compared to the Sultanate?
Q1. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in which year and which battle?
1398, Battle of Khanwa
1556, Second Battle of Panipat
1526, First Battle of Panipat
1576, Battle of Haldighati
Q2. What is ‘sulh-i-kul’, a doctrine promoted by Akbar?
Tax on non-Muslim subjects
Peace with all / tolerance of all faiths
Compulsory military service for all
Land grants for military officers
Q3. Akbar established a ‘house of translation’ at which city to translate Sanskrit texts into Persian?
Agra
Delhi
Lahore
Fatehpur Sikri
Q4. Why is Aurangzeb’s long Deccan campaign considered a key cause of Mughal decline?
It depleted the empire’s treasury and strained the administration
It led to the Deccan Sultanates defeating the Mughals
It caused Aurangzeb to lose faith in his generals
It led to the Portuguese capturing Mughal ports
βοΈ
Resistance to the Mughals
The Rajputs
Because of their location in northwest India and proud warrior traditions, the Rajputs often battled invading forces. Two major clans emerged: in the Mewar and Marwar regions. Their heroic deeds are still remembered in popular ballads.
RS
Early 16th century
Rana Sanga
Unified several Rajput clans and won many battles against the sultans, but ultimately met defeat against Babur at the Battle of Khanwa.
MP
1576 β Battle of Haldighati
Maharana Pratap β The Face of Rajput Resistance
Mewar’s ruler, Maharana Pratap, refused to accept Mughal suzerainty. At the Battle of Haldighati (1576) in the Aravalli hills, the Mughal army had the upper hand, but Maharana Pratap escaped and pursued guerrilla warfare for years from the Aravalli hills, living in harsh conditions but firm on independence.
He received strong support from the Bhils, who joined his troops as archers and contributed knowledge of terrain β earning them a respected place in Mewar’s military tradition (visible in the Mewar emblem).
π Definition β Guerrilla Warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a style of fighting where small groups with knowledge of the terrain carry out surprise attacks and ambushes to defeat bigger armies.
While some Rajput states allied with the Mughals through diplomacy and marriage alliances, Mewar refused Mughal dominance. During Aurangzeb’s reign, several Rajput nobles rebelled, including Durga Das Rathore of Marwar, who fought to protect the independence of Jodhpur. Mughal authority remained limited in Rajasthan.
Rani Durgavati β A Tribal Queen’s Resistance
RD
1564 CE
Rani Durgavati of the Garha Kingdom (Gond)
Queen of the Garha Kingdom (a Gond kingdom in central India), she ruled wisely and made her kingdom prosperous with an army of 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants, repelling several invasions. When Akbar’s general attacked in 1564, despite being outnumbered, she led her troops bravely and, when wounded, took her own life on the battlefield to avoid capture. She was only 40. Her sacrifice became a symbol of regional pride and resistance.
The Ahoms
In the 13th century, the Ahom ethnic group migrated from present-day Myanmar to the Brahmaputra Valley. During the Sultanate and Mughal periods, Ahom rulers offered stiff resistance to expansion into the Northeast. Their unique paik system called on every able-bodied man to provide service to the state through labour or military duty in exchange for land rights β allowing rulers to create public infrastructure and maintain a large force without a permanent army.
LB
1671 β Battle of Saraighat
Lachit Borphukan β Hero of the Battle of Saraighat
When Aurangzeb sent Mughal forces, the Ahoms used their knowledge of terrain β dense forests, hills, and rivers β and guerrilla tactics. At the Battle of Saraighat (1671) on the Brahmaputra River near present-day Guwahati, Ahom commander Lachit Borphukan and his 10,000 men defeated a Mughal force of 30,000 soldiers. The Ahoms ultimately preserved their independence.
π Don’t Miss Out β Mughal Praise for Ahom Warriors
Mughal general Ram Singh praised the Ahom warriors: “Every Assamese soldier is expert in rowing boats, in shooting arrows, in digging trenches, and in wielding guns and cannons. I have not seen such specimens of versatility in any other part of India.”
The Rise of the Sikhs
In 15th-century Punjab, Guru Nanak spread the message of equality, compassion, and the oneness of God (Ik OnkΔr). Though Sikhism began as a spiritual movement, later Sikh Gurus had to respond to growing Mughal intolerance.
- Emperor Jahangir had Guru Arjan tortured to death for supporting his rebellious son β prompting Guru Arjan’s son Guru Hargobind to introduce martial training and form a Sikh army.
- In 1675, a group of Kashmiri Pandits approached Guru Tegh Bahadur seeking protection from religious persecution. The Guru stood with them and courted martyrdom. Despite torture, he refused Aurangzeb’s order to convert to Islam. He was publicly beheaded in Chandni Chowk, Delhi.
- In response, his son Guru Gobind Singh (the 10th and last Guru) established the Khalsa in 1699 β a martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality, and defence of the faith. The Khalsa frequently clashed with Mughal forces at great cost.
- As the Mughal Empire declined, Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified Sikh confederacies and established the Sikh Empire at the turn of the 19th century β resisting both Mughal remnants and later British expansion.
π Don’t Miss Out β Gurudwara Sis Gunj Sahib
In Chandni Chowk, Delhi, Gurudwara Sis Gunj Sahib marks the site where Guru Tegh Bahadur (ninth Sikh Guru) was beheaded by Aurangzeb in 1675. The Sikh Regiment has saluted it before the President in the Republic Day parade each year since 1979. The Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikhs’ sacred text) was first compiled by Guru Arjan; it stresses one God for all and values like truthfulness, compassion, and humility.
Q1. What was the Ahom ‘paik system’?
A river transport system used by the Ahoms
Every able-bodied man provides service (labour/military duty) in exchange for land rights
A tax collection system from peasants
The Ahom system of granting titles to warriors
Q2. At the Battle of Saraighat (1671), Lachit Borphukan’s force of 10,000 defeated a Mughal army of how many soldiers?
5,000
15,000
30,000
1,00,000
Q3. Who established the Khalsa in 1699 as a martial Sikh brotherhood?
Guru Nanak
Guru Arjan
Guru Tegh Bahadur
Guru Gobind Singh
Q4. Rani Durgavati ruled the Garha Kingdom, which was part of which ethnic/tribal community?
Gond
Bhil
Santhal
Ahom
ποΈ
Administering India
Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate introduced a system centred on the Sultan, who possessed absolute authority as political and military head. He was assisted by a council of ministers.
Key instrument: the iqta system β territories assigned to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes, which (minus expenses) went to the Sultan’s treasury, primarily to maintain the army. The posts were not hereditary. The tax burden fell most heavily on the peasantry.
The Mughal Administrative Framework
Akbar reorganised administration for greater control and efficiency. The empire was divided into twelve provinces (subahs), each with ministers and checks and balances. At the village level, traditional structures of self-governance continued.
| Mughal Official | Role |
|---|---|
| Diwan | Finance and revenue |
| Mir Bakhshi | Military matters |
| Khan-i-Saman | Public works, trade, industry, agriculture & royal household |
| Sadr | Justice, religious and educational matters |
π Exam Point β Mansabdari System
Akbar instituted the mansabdari system. Officers (mansabdars) according to their rank (mansab) were expected to maintain a set number of elephants, horses, camels, and troops. This enabled assembling an army at short notice without a permanent centralised army. Mansabdars were paid via land grants (jagirs), hence also called jagirdars. Regular inspections ensured compliance. Recorded by Abul Fazl in the Ain-i-Akbari.
π Exam Point β Todar Mal’s Revenue Reforms
Akbar’s finance minister Todar Mal introduced an efficient revenue system: made detailed surveys of crop yields and prices, determined prices for each crop, and initiated a systematic land survey of the entire empire β boosting revenue collection and strengthening the state.
Q1. In the Delhi Sultanate’s iqta system, who were iqtadars?
Traders who paid special taxes
Nobles assigned territories to collect taxes for the Sultan’s treasury
Peasants who farmed government land
Court poets and scholars
Q2. Mansabdars were also known as jagirdars because:
They lived in jagirs (palaces) in Delhi
They conquered new territories called jagirs
They were paid by being assigned land (jagirs)
They inherited titles called jagirs
Q3. Which minister in Akbar’s court looked after military matters?
Diwan
Sadr
Khan-i-Saman
Mir Bakhshi
πΎ
People’s Lives
Despite shifting political powers between the 13th and 17th centuries, India remained one of the wealthiest regions in the world, with vibrant economic activity based on:
- Agriculture β the mainstay; rulers extracted land revenue (typically one-fifth, but some sultans raised it to one-half)
- Artisanal industries β textiles, weapons, utensils, ornaments, jewellery
- Trade networks β both internal and maritime
- ΕhreαΉis (guilds), jΔtis (professional communities), and credit systems
π Exam Point β The Hundi System
A hundi was a written instruction to make payment to an individual. It could be carried across political borders and enabled financial transactions without physically transporting currency β a precursor to modern banking. The Marwari trader communities became adept at operating across political regimes using the hundi system.
π Temples as Economic Centres
Many temples were far more than places of worship. They created ecosystems with bustling markets; ruling classes donated land and wealth (dΔna) to temple deities. Temple managers developed community infrastructure (irrigation systems, tanks) and pilgrim accommodations (dharmaΕhΔlΔs, chhatrams). Temples also provided merchants with credit and funded trade.
Trade: Indian goods were exported through coastal towns like Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam, and Hooghly. India imported far less than it exported β imports included silk, horses, metals, and luxury goods. Merchants from Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia settled in Indian ports.
Infrastructure: The Sultanate period saw progress in roads, bridges, canals, and new cities β all expanding considerably under the Mughals. New coins (like the Mughal rupaya in silver and dam in copper) were introduced as currency.
Hardship: The late 1600s saw economic stress. Peasants were often left with little after taxes. Many lost their land and became bonded labourers. Wealth was concentrated in the hands of rulers, courtiers, officials, and merchants. Frequent warfare caused forced displacement.
π Social Life of Common People
At the common people’s level, there were occasional clashes β especially over sacred sites that had been desecrated under rulers’ sanction. But by and large, people of different faiths lived peacefully side by side, economically dependent on each other. Cultural interaction resulted in a shared heritage in art, literature, music, and architecture. India’s resilience during this turbulent period is a central theme of the chapter.
Q1. What was the hundi system primarily used for?
Transferring funds across political boundaries without physically transporting currency
Collecting taxes from peasants
Recording land grants for temple authorities
Keeping accounts of the Sultan’s military expenses
Q2. The typical land revenue extracted from peasants by rulers was approximately:
One-tenth of the produce
Three-quarters of the produce
Two-thirds of the produce
One-fifth of the produce (though some sultans raised it to one-half)
Q3. The Mughal currency included a silver coin called:
Tanka
Dam
Rupaya
Mohur
π Part 2 Final Quiz
15 questions β The Mughals, Resistance Movements, Administration & People’s Lives
1. Babur’s autobiography is called:
Baburnama
Ain-i-Akbari
Razmnama
ΔmuktamΔlyada
2. Sher Shah Suri established the Sur Empire by taking advantage of the weakness of:
Akbar
Babur
Humayun
Aurangzeb
3. Akbar was declared emperor at what age?
18
25
16
13
4. Akbar’s court historian who documented his administration in ‘Ain-i-Akbari’ was:
Todar Mal
Abul Fazl
Birbal
Tansen
5. The Taj Mahal was built by which Mughal emperor?
Akbar
Aurangzeb
Shah Jahan
Humayun
6. Aurangzeb imposed which taxes that Akbar had abolished?
Jizya on non-Muslims and pilgrimage tax on Hindus
Trade tax on all merchants
A land tax on all nobles
A temple tax on Jain merchants
7. Maharana Pratap fought guerrilla warfare against the Mughals from which range of hills?
Vindhya hills
Satpura hills
Nilgiri hills
Aravalli hills
8. The Battle of Haldighati (1576) was fought between:
Babur and Rana Sanga
Akbar’s Mughal army and Maharana Pratap
Aurangzeb and Durga Das Rathore
Timur and the Delhi Sultanate
9. The Battle of Saraighat (1671) was fought on which river?
Ganga
Yamuna
Brahmaputra
Mahanadi
10. Guru Tegh Bahadur was publicly beheaded in 1675 at:
Chandni Chowk, Delhi
Lahore
Amritsar
Agra
11. Who founded the Sikh Empire at the turn of the 19th century?
Guru Gobind Singh
Guru Nanak
Guru Tegh Bahadur
Maharaja Ranjit Singh
12. The mansabdari system introduced by Akbar was primarily meant to:
Reward poets and scholars at the court
Collect temple taxes for the empire
Enable assembling an army at short notice without maintaining a permanent centralised army
Build forts and public infrastructure across the empire
13. India exported goods through cities like Calicut, Surat, and Hooghly, and imported:
Textiles and spices
Silk, horses, metals, and luxury goods
Rice and wheat from Arabia
Ships and firearms only
14. The Khalsa was established in which year?
1699
1675
1526
1799
15. Todar Mal, as Akbar’s finance minister, is known for:
Introducing the mansabdari system
Translating the Mahabharata into Persian
Building the Fatehpur Sikri city
Introducing an efficient revenue system with detailed land surveys and crop pricing
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π Part 2 Summary
- Babur (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at First Battle of Panipat using gunpowder, field artillery β founded the Mughal Empire. Left behind Baburnama.
- Akbar (1556β1605): Blend of brutality (Chittor massacre) and tolerance (sulh-i-kul, abolished jizya, invited scholars, translated Sanskrit texts). Introduced mansabdari system, Todar Mal’s land revenue reform.
- Shah Jahan: Built the Taj Mahal; era of great architectural and artistic flowering.
- Aurangzeb (1658β1707): Greatest territorial expansion but constant rebellions; reimposed jizya; temple demolitions; 25-year Deccan wars depleted treasury β key cause of Mughal decline.
- Rajput Resistance: Rana Sanga, Maharana Pratap (Battle of Haldighati, guerrilla warfare with Bhil support), Durga Das Rathore.
- Ahom Resistance: paik system, Battle of Saraighat (1671) β Lachit Borphukan defeated 30,000 Mughals with 10,000 soldiers.
- Sikh Resistance: Guru Arjan’s martyrdom β Guru Hargobind’s martial Sikhism β Guru Tegh Bahadur’s sacrifice (1675) β Guru Gobind Singh’s Khalsa (1699) β Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s Sikh Empire.
- Administration: Sultanate β iqta system. Mughals β 12 subahs, mansabdari, Todar Mal’s revenue reforms.
- Economy: Agriculture, guilds, hundi system (precursor to banking), temple economies, extensive trade. Wealth concentrated at top; peasantry suffered.
β Part 1: Delhi Sultanate & Vijayanagara Empire
π Part 2: Mughals, Resistance, Administration & People’s Lives